Tobias Rüttenauer¹; Kasimir Dederichs²; David Kretschmer²

¹ University College London; ² Nuffield College, University of Oxford²

This study addresses two questions: (i) How does segregation vary across European urban areas, and how much of this variation occurs at the local vs. national level? (ii) Which urban and country characteristics are systematically linked to segregation? Earlier studies were limited by inconsistent group definitions (e.g., immigrant status vs. citizenship), outdated data (mostly pre-2011), cross-country differences in spatial units, aspatial metrics, and limited geographic scope. Against this backdrop, we use harmonized 1×1 km grid-level 2021 census data to calculate spatially weighted Dissimilarity Indices for all 711 Functional Urban Areas (FUAs) in 30 European countries. We complement this with rich data on population, housing, economy, education, and immigration policies at the FUA and country level. Results reveal that, on average, FUAs in Western- and Northern European countries exhibit higher segregation than those in Eastern and Southern Europe but that there is also substantial within country variation. To identify correlates of segregation, we run specification curve analyses across 120 million multilevel regression models with meaningful predictor combinations. At the urban level, larger populations, lower density, smaller immigrant shares, fewer non-EU immigrants, lower homeownership, and lower housing turnover are associated with higher levels of segregation. At the country level, higher segregation is linked to lower economic inequality, while migration policy shows no consistent relationship. These findings offer new comparative insights into segregation patterns across Europe and are discussed in light of classic and contemporary segregation theories.

Hanno Kruse

University of Bonn

This study examines how rising ethnic diversity affects school segregation in advanced industrial societies, arguing that segregation must be understood along two dimensions: segmenting segregation (across schools of similar quality) and stratifying segregation (across schools of differing quality). Drawing on a social closure framework, the analysis emphasizes how institutional mechanisms—such as between-school tracking, private schooling, and admissions tied to residence—mediate access to high-status schools and reproduce educational inequality. Using data from six waves of the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) across 50 countries (2006–2022), the study tests four hypotheses concerning the effects of demographic change and the role of institutional structures. The results reveal that while overall ethnic segregation remains stable or declines, stratifying segregation increases as diversity grows. Minority students become more concentrated in lower-quality schools, while higher-tier schools remain relatively homogenous. Exposure to diversity thus rises most in the lower strata, reinforcing vertical separation despite broader integration. Systems with stronger institutional gatekeeping mechanisms show more pronounced stratifying effects. Additionally, there is evidence that increased diversity leads to modest institutional adaptations, particularly a rise in private schooling. These findings challenge conventional accounts that treat segregation as a single-dimensional process and underscore the importance of distinguishing between types of segregation in examining the impact of demographic change.

Markus Gangl

Goethe University Frankfurt am Main

The paper uses harmonized and cross-nationally comparative survey data from seven large-scale international survey programs and a novel class of cohort-level inequality measures to evaluate the Great Gatsby hypothesis of a negative relationship between economic inequality and intergenerational socioeconomic mobility. Unlike in earlier single-country studies that mostly failed to confirm the existence of a Great Gatsby curve in the temporal dimension, the hypothesized association robustly emerges in the present analysis that is drawing on samples of up to one million respondents from 33 affluent Western countries. Across birth cohorts 1925-1994, four different measures of respondents’ social origins and 15 different measures of respondents’ socioeconomic attainment, empirical estimates from hybrid two-way country- and birth cohort-fixed effects fixed slopes (cFES) multilevel regression models provide consistent support for the notion that rising inequality is followed by a higher degree of transmission of socioeconomic advantages across generations. The temporal pattern of results suggests that parental opportunity hoarding as well as socially differential investment in response to changing incentives create the Great Gatsby curve association, whereas historical luck does not make a substantively relevant contribution.

Heta Pöyliö

European University Institute

Social protection systems in Europe have evolved over time to address poverty, inequality, and various social risks. These systems, designed to support vulnerable populations, have become complex, while aiming to enhance their coverage. This, in turn, has increased the inequalities in take-up and access to social benefits, weakening their poverty-alleviation mechanisms. The persistent poverty rates in Europe highlight further the systems’ inability to fully address inequality and promote sufficient livelihoods. This paper provides a system-based approach rather than focusing on individual behavior or administrative issues related to the inequalities within the social transfer systems. The paper examines the level of fragmentation of European social protection systems, i.e. ‘the benefit puzzle’, and how it contributes to income inequality and poverty risk. By using Luxembourg Income Study (LIS) micro-level data, it explores whether higher fragmentation correlates with lower income adequacy, particularly among groups reliant on transfers such as single mothers and unemployed individuals. In addition to the comparative perspective, socio-economic disparities in the impact of the benefit puzzle on incomes are examined to bring forth evidence on how the complexity of current welfare systems may be linked to persistent inequalities in societies.